The king sat down in the tribune in the Royal Chapel for mass, which lasted half an hour. When the king died on May 14, 1643, 4-year-old Louis inherited the crown of … Education among the upper classes was often very superficial. The app includes the audioguide tour of the Palace and an interactive map of the Estate. In Louis’s day, people thought a good, thick, grimy layer of filth would keep you healthy and strong! The nobility had to spend a large portion of the year at Versailles with Louis, that way he could keep them under his watch. Louis XIV (Louis Dieudonné; 5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil), was King of France from 14 May 1643 until his death in 1715. The lucrative offices were largely held by those of inferior birth, and except by pensions from the crown, it was impossible to replace the fortunes spent in extravagance. It could borrow money only at extravagant rates, twenty-five per cent or more. Nothing could be more frivolous than the grounds for these meetings, and nothing more ferocious than the encounters. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest recorded of any monarch of a sovereign country in European history. By affording a bigger role to the Court than Henry IV and Louis XIII had done, Louis XIV restored a sense of service among the nobility. There were fewer nobles then, than a century later, who had for their patrimony only their titles and their pride. In 1657, five or six thousand livres was considered a good income on which to marry.' Follow King Louis XIV's reign during France's classical age, including his revocation of the Edict of Nantes and aggressive foreign policy, on Biography.com. This public ritual, when the king retired to his bedchamber, was the exact reverse of the getting-up ceremony. However he never had complete control other the aristocracy and it died with him in 1715. However much such a life may have unfitted the nobility for being of use in the world, it doubtless perfected their manners. Society was still in the condition where the male seeks lustre from a gorgeous habiliment. In theory the Sun King’s daily schedule continued during the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI, but neither of the later sovereigns could stand the oppressive ceremonial rituals. He then retired to his cabinet to converse more freely with his family and a few close friends. 11 am: upon returning to his apartment, the king held council in his chamber. How significant were the king's semi-public displays of prayer and piety? Commerce and trade were forbidden. A key use of propaganda in Versailles was the depiction of Louis XIV in paintings. 8.30 am: the First Valet de Chambre woke the king with “Sire, it’s time to get up”. Louis XIV was one of Europe’s longest ever reigning sovereigns, keeping his throne for an incredible 72 years. Madame de Roquilaure lost 30,000. While the dresses of the ladies were often costly, the greatest expenditure was on the clothes of the men. Some, it was said, in Lorraine had incomes of less than two thousand livres, but they were usually those who had fraudulently assumed the rank of nobility. The nobles always went to Louis first. Louis XIV installed his royal court at Versailles. THE PRINCIPAL LEGACY of Louis XIV was a powerful and centralized France. Frequent investigations were ordered as to the real status of such offenders, but they were usually abandoned. The Marquis of Seneterre invited his friends to dine with him in the trenches of a city they were besieging. In theory they shielded the face from the intense gaze of inferiors, and in practice they were often convenient for ladies devoted to politics and gallantry. An aristocracy must be rich in order to hold its position and influence, and the incomes of many of the nobles were large for the period. Ancre lost 80,000 pistoles in one night.
In Poitou, in 1664, many are reported with incomes of twenty or thirty thousand livres (forty or sixty thousand francs). The nobility continued to hold privileges which had become odious, without rendering services that should compensate for them, and without possessing the ability with which to protect them. Not only were all members of noble families noble, but nobility had been profusely granted to officials of many classes. It was necessary that a soldier should ride well, and equally necessary that a courtier should dance well; and in these two accomplishments it was said the French masters exceeded those of all other nations. To this very day, no document has been discovered that proves the whole thing, yet it is accepted to have happened by historians all over word. Besides limiting their power, it meant that they had to be away from their hotels particulier in Paris and provincial chateaus. A family could not live now in any great city and support such an establishment for five times that amount. -Louis XIV domesticated the nobles- took the war out of them -at the same time, the fork is introduced in Italy, before the fingers were used to eat meat -fork was introduced in Versaille as well- this emasculated and domesticated the once barbaric nobles Here, historian Lynn Wood Mollenauer considers the ambitious aristocrats who battled for power within the court and sheds light on the ‘affair of the poisons’, a scandal that reached right into the inner circle of the king… The latter said a good memory implied small judgment, and he insisted on a duel to avenge this affront.1 The seconds must fight also, but gentlemen were reckless of life, and an invitation to act as a second was regarded as a favor. In Poitou alone the superintendent reported there were fifteen hundred gentlemen, and with their families there must have been several thousand of gentle blood in this small province. Thus as service came to be seen as a way of being useful to the kingdom and pleasing to the sovereign, this very perception helped the sovereign maintain control over the nobility, therefore strengthening the authority of the crown. This marked the beginning of the long civil war known as the Fronde , in the course of which Louis suffered poverty, misfortune, fear, humiliation, cold, and hunger. The … document.cookie = "__adblocker=" + (adblocker ? By attaching nobles to his court at Versailles, Louis achieved increased control over the French aristocracy. 1 pm: the king ate alone in his bedchamber, seated at a table facing the windows. You have to know the original and purpose of the Versailles palace to understand the daily live in it. Deer, wolves, and wild boars were hunted on horseback, and birds of various sorts were chased by falcons. For a man to keep on his hat was still the privilege and the practice of the nobles. He gave them offices and fancy titles but little power. They wore them even when they ate and when they danced. de Chevreuse over 200,000 livres to pay her debts. His rule was limited by the fundamental laws of the realm, tradition, and the practical difficulties of enforcing his will on an extended country of twenty million people. }
The Fronde in Guienne was unable to raise money because the noblemen who supported it were already greatly in debt, and as their reputation for paying what they owed was very poor, no one was willing to advance money upon their credit. It can be used without an Internet connection. The first problem which confronted Louis XIV when he assumed the government was a financial one. Social French Language Under Louis XIV, French became the international language in Europe and the language that signified that one was well-educated. Louis XIV - Louis XIV - Patronage of the arts: Louis’s great fortune was in having among his subjects an extraordinary group of men in every area of activity. Bassompierre owed 1,600,000 livres and had no money with which to pay his creditors.1 It had been incurred by lavish expenditure, keeping a great establishment, dressing in the pink of fashion, and entertaining with magnificence. The king sat down to dinner with the members of the royal family. Her husband paid the money and told her to play no more. The French sought death, it was said, as if the resurrection were tomorrow. The custom, however, disappeared in the latter part of the reign of Louis XIV. Life of the Common People under Louis XIV’s Rule An Absolute Monarchy was a new concept to the people of France during the 1600’s. 6 pm or 7 pm: Louis XIV often left his son in charge of indoor entertainment, such as Evening Gatherings. Louis had the nobles of France live with him in the Palace to keep them under his watch and deter them from partcipating in politics. The usage was confined to the upper classes. They believed water spread diseases by penetrating the pores of the skin and then infecting the bloodstream. But a very different and far more pernicious amusement occupied a large portion of the time, and the taste for it extended somewhat to other social classes. A century later Arthur Young said that for eight thousand livres, a gentleman could live in the country and keep four servants and three horses. Through our new partnership with the French American Cultural Foundation, American citizens can easily support the Palace of Versailles. Louis wanted to make sure he had all the most powerful people with him at all times. Louis was nine years old when the nobles and the Paris Parlement (a powerful law court), driven by hatred of the prime minister Jules Cardinal Mazarin, rose against the crown in 1648. Many edicts were issued against this extravagance. var setNptTechAdblockerCookie = function(adblocker) {
His statement was hardly exaggerated. document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(script);
First of all you need to know that Louis XIV had already stripped the nobles of all their effective power. Discover more on this Foundation. Recent research has shown, however, that Louis XIV could not arbitrarily dominate his subjects. At this point the crowd that had gathered along the way could finally see the king. The manner in which this sum was to be divided shows the difference in modes of life. At the court of Versailles, following the lead of their king, nobles soon showcased their wealth and … They felt the unconcern of children at political events, because they comprehended them no more than children. Did they pay for food or was everything provided for? Louis XIV was a new breed of King; he reigned with absolute power in an absolute monarch as the longest ruling of France for over 72 years. It seems an absurd method of raising money to sell the right to the salaried offices of the state - even the hereditary right to them - and especially to create new and unnecessary offices for the sake of selling them. He knew well how to make use of them. On these days the king could also decide to examine the progress of works projects. The credit of the state was very low. The question is simple: why Louis XIV, the man who stated l’état c’est moi (the State is me) and worked hard to be the centre of France’s universe turning the country into an absolute monarchy, decided to move from the capital to a swampy (and stinking) game reserve? If he went on a walk, it would be in the gardens on foot or in a Barouche with the ladies. But they possessed also the breeding which enables one to meet the vicissitudes of life and the overthrow of fortune without change of countenance. If he decided to go hunting, the favourite sport of the Bourbons, the monarch would go to the park if he chose to hunt with weapons, and to the surrounding forest when hunting on horseback. (function(src){var a=document.createElement("script");a.type="text/javascript";a.async=true;a.src=src;var b=document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0];b.parentNode.insertBefore(a,b)})("//experience.tinypass.com/xbuilder/experience/load?aid=bYdYZQml5V"); In considering the customs and modes of life of the classes which were raised above the necessity of manual labor, the nobility naturally first attract our attention.
At Court there were tables for cards both day and night, and ladies as well as gentlemen played for high stakes. In 1650 the incomes of the Princes of Conde and Conti and of the Duke of Longueville amounted altogether to nearly two million livres. When Louis XIV was 10, he was chased out of France by a band of angry aristocrats who wanted to keep royal powers in check. The brave man was not he who met danger when it was required, but who sought peril when it was useless. I don't know if he did actually have … The same spirit made the bravery of the gentlemen in battle often become mere foolhardiness. 10 pm: the crowd would hurry into the King’s Antechamber to attend the dinner at the Royal Table. Life there was growing more expensive, and the extravagance of the courtiers was excessive. King Louis led France through three major and several minor wars. These declared that the French were consuming their estates in an excessive passion for luxury and dress. 5. This has the effect of reducing one major threat to his power - Nobility. Louis XIV used the grandiosity of his Palace and the art inside to promote himself to his people. Most of it came easily and was spent recklessly. A little later, in 1678, Mme. Louis XIV was crowned on June 7, 1654 and reigned as king of France for 61 years. Orleans, Tubeuf and Cardinal Mazarin lost over half a million at a sitting. They dined there in the open air, finding a zest in the cannon balls that flew about them. Intendant System Louis XIV continued the Intendant System that Richelieu created. d.setTime(d.getTime() + 60 * 60 * 24 * 2 * 1000);
The changed conditions of a world, where all are so nearly equal, has rubbed off a certain ineffable grace. 11.30 pm: the going-to-bed ceremony. He did this by improving the economy, reorganizing the military and just making good decision… A nobleman complained that they would all be better off without any pensions, for the country gentleman, who lived quietly at home with one valet, came up to Paris in the hope of obtaining a pension, and there had his squire, two gentlemen in attendance, and many pages, was covered with plumes and gold lace, and consumed his whole income in two or three months.1 Those of still higher position lived in great splendor, and usually spent more than they received. On this day May 6 th, in 1682, Louis XIV moves the French court from Paris to Versailles. Though le Roi Soleil was no superman in the sense that he would have fought his way to the front had he not been of royal descent, he gave his name to the greatest era in French history, and his rays penetrated to every corner of Europe. Once the meal was over, the monarch crossed the room and entered the salon to greet the ladies of the court. The entire complex was a place where his every move could take place in a suitably grand setting. As often as possible they took refuge in their private apartments or nearby royal residences. The duke sold a piece of land and paid the amount. During his rule, France was the most powerful country in Europe. It was a form of punishment for the aristocrats, in part. From morning to evening his day ran like clockwork, to a schedule that was just as strictly ordered as life in the Court. Because Louis was fond of fashion he dictated the style of dress that was permitted at court so again the nobles spent a great deal of their time … The premise is simple: Louis XI, the Universal Spider, is reborn in the body of Louis XIV. Louis XV's toilette at the Palace of Versailles.
When Louis XIIV died, his son the later Louis XIV was only a kid. this absurd and pernicious practice was largely checked. Discover the history of the Palace of Versailles and its characters in this illustrated video for young and old alike ! de SeVign6 speaks of going masked to watch her frfend Fouquet, when he was taken to the arsenal. From thirteen to sixteen the young noble usually began his military service. Some could speak briefly to him or slip him a written note. For a man to keep on his hat was still the privilege and the practice of the nobles. It is impossible to give the average incomes of so large a body as the nobility. Pontis says, that during the eight years of the regency of Anne of Austria, 935 gentlemen were known to have been killed in duels." Louis XIII's successor, Louis XIV, had a great interest in Versailles.He settled on the royal hunting lodge at Versailles, and over the following decades had it expanded into one of the largest palaces in the world. Does France under Louis XI get further than it did under Louis XIV? One brave but cruel gentlemen, Richelieu said, had killed seventeen men in duels.' Masques were often worn by ladies. Louis XIV had two servants that were charged with cleaning his pot and handing him the cloth. The king’s day was timed to the minute to allow the officers in his service to plan their own work accordingly. One gentleman praised the memory of another. Duelling was somewhat checked by Richelieu, but the practice still continued. In principle this meal was taken in private, but Louis XIV had the habit of admitting all the men of the Court, generally those present at the getting-up ceremony. Before the dinner was over a ball struck the marquis, and he was killed at table in the midst of his guests. Revise your French history with help from the artworks of the Palace of Versailles! The purpose of Versailles was not just to inspire awe, though, but also deference and servitude. It is doubtful if the charm of manner and conversation which then existed in the best society of France can now be found in any class. King Louis XIV, France Rumor : Louis XIV took only 3 baths in his life. During these difficult times, the Palace needs your support more than ever. Game was abundant in the great forests which covered a considerable part of France. According to historian Philip Mansel , the king turned the palace into: an irresistible combination of marriage market, employment agency and entertainment capital of aristocratic Europe, boasting the best theater, opera, music, gambling, sex and (most important) hunting.
Causes: Fronde The Fronde was one of the main reasons why Louis XIV ruled the way he did. Louis XIV, the Sun King, was particularly known for his behavior with women.
Then the Officers of the Chamber and of the Clothes Storehouse entered for the grand getting-up ceremony, during which the king was dressed and drank soup for breakfast. #ga-ad {display: none;}
Background. What religious message did it send if the king consistently sat in his own special loge in the chapel, rather than joining the other nobles … What are the effects on French foreign and internal policy, and how does Louis XI's way of doing things affect the rest of Europe? Persons of good position could live with comfort on sums which would now be utterly inadequate. Take part in the history of the palace of Versailles by supporting a project that suits you: adopt a linden tree, contribute to the missions of the Palace or participate in the refurnishing of the royal apartments. Louis perfected France's government and made himself the government. }, Page last modified: Furthermore, without a police force or a standing army, the king relied … In the meantime the king would sign the numerous letters prepared by his secretary, then go to the apartments of Mme de Maintenon, where he studied important paperwork with one of his four Secretaries of State. Did members of nobility pay rent to live at Louis XIV's court? If you were to have any hope of advancement, you … Many others had as little as eight or ten thousand livres. 10 am: a procession formed in the Hall of Mirrors at the exit of the King’s Apartments, and the king crossed the State Apartments followed by his courtiers. In 1664, Mme. Abstract. The condition of finances of the state were in extreme confusion. Most people didn’t bathe more than once a year. Originally built in 1624, Versailles served as a hunting lodge for Louis XIII, but was transformed into the palace of his son, Louis XIV, over many decades. Such exploits, which would now excite contempt, then aroused admiration. His reign is known as sort of a Golden Age in French history, admired for the dazzling royal court culture at Versailles, and the intellectual and … Versailles also had public toilets, but considering how many people were in need of those, it were far too few. He separated power from status and grandeur: secured the nobles' cooperation. "true" : "false") + "; expires=" + d.toUTCString() + "; path=/";
Learn term:louis xiv = palace of versailles with free interactive flashcards. Even this was an improvement on the condition of affairs twenty years before, and during the reign of Louis XIV. (A more proper toilet was installed under Louis XV, it even had a water flush.) King Louis and the Versailles palace has made an extremely huge impact on thw world today. On Tuesdays and Saturdays it was the Financial Council, while Fridays were taken up with the Council of Conscience (religious affairs). "There is nothing so necessary as dancing." Versailles and Absolutism Louis XIV built Versailles was not only so that he can have a nice house. 2 pm: the king gave his orders and announced his plans in the morning. After a visit from the First Doctor and First Surgeon, the first getting-up ceremony began. So he created Versailles and all ceremonies of the court, to keep … The wages of servants were low, and many modern sources of expense had not been discovered. As serious employment could not be allowed, amusements were largely sought. But the edicts had no effect in checking such customs. de Maintenon estimated the sum upon which a family of good position could live, keeping ten servants and four horses, at twelve thousand livres-about one thousand pounds, or five thousand dollars. The great Sun King had lost his wife Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche to a sudden illness in 1683. The result of extravagant living was often an enormous indebtedness. For a man to keep on his hat was still the privilege and the practice of the nobles. Loret tells us that the ladies wore masques when driving on the Cours la Reine, but when the king passed, five hundred beautiful faces exposed their charms. During the reign of Louis XIV, who did France fight wars against? They witnessed their own ruin with as much indifference of manner as they had witnessed the ruin of others. "Without dancing a gentleman can do nothing," said the professor in the Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Six thousand livres was allowed for the table, and three thousand for the dress, expenses, and magnificence of monsieur. The French nobility (French: la noblesse) was a privileged social class in France during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period to the revolution in 1790. The “Chapel Music” choir, which was famous throughout Europe, sang a new piece every day, composed by Lully, de Lalande, and others. Louis XIV, the Palace of Versailles, absolute monarchy… Why don’t we take a closer look at the emergence of the nation state in early modern France? The dress of a gentleman of good fashion would cost 3,000 or 4,000 francs, and that worn on great occasions would cost 10,000 francs, or more. Throughout his life, he had a myriad of affairs before, during, and after his marriage to Queen Marie Thérèse. He built it as a way to keep his nobles in line. But these large sums were drawn from the treasury by nobles who spent a great portion of their time at the Court. Humiliating nobles may not be the best word to describe the relation between Louis XIV and the aristocracy. M. de Crequi lost 600,000 francs, and it was charged that he only paid half the debt. . Members of the entourage, those with important roles and certain friends who enjoyed the privilege of attending such moments successively entered the King’s Bedchamber while the sovereign was washed, combed and shaved. Louis required greater nobles stay mostly at the court with threat of punishment. To be a gallant man was the great desire of a French nobleman, and the fear of forfeiting this title led him to many absurdities. In the 1660s, Louis XIV made a radical decision to renovate Louix XIII’s country hunting lodge and transform it into France’s new royal palace: Versailles. One night, at the chateau de Versailles, a group of selected people gathered, sworn to complete secrecy, to witness the second marriage of Louis XIV.
For many years, Versailles was seen as a gilded theater upon whose stage an all-powerful absolutemonarch entertained a captive audience of domesticated aristocrats. He was the protector of writers, notably Molière and Jean Racine, whom he ordered to sing his praises, and he imposed his own visions of beauty and nature on artists. Gentlemen were sometimes arrested and the unlawful finery taken from them.' Before that, the two things which he studied most and understood best were riding and dancing. document.cookie = "__adblocker=; expires=Thu, 01 Jan 1970 00:00:00 GMT; path=/";
The famous memorialist the Duke of Saint-Simon wrote of Louis XIV: “With an almanach and a watch, one could, from 300 leagues away, say with accuracy what he was doing”. For nearly two decades, the men carved the Palace of Versailles out of the thick wooded marshes and achieved Louis's vision of enormity and splendor. Many also assumed the rank without being entitled to it, in order to obtain social position and to enjoy exemption from taxation. Versailles was a response to the Fronde, which was an aristocratic rebellion against royal authority in the early reign of Louis XIV. Introduced at the end of the sixteenth century, they came gradually into use, and became very common during the Fronde. On Mondays (every two weeks), Wednesdays, Thursdays and Sundays, the State Council, or “High Council”, was held. He had sat atop the throne for … The dress of the time was very different from our own, and that worn by people of fashion was very expensive. Born on September 5, 1638, to King Louis XIII of France (1601-1643) and his Habsburg queen, Anne of Austria (1601-1666), the future Louis XIV was his parents’ first child after 23 years of marriage; in recognition of this apparent miracle, he was christened Louis-Dieudonné, meaning “gift of God.” A younger brother, Philippe (1640-1701), followed two years later. Also, I read that during the reign of Louis XIV, Versailles was open to the public - even the apartments (and bedrooms) of royalty. Louis XIV built the Palace of Versailles in an effort to keep his Nobles close to him so that he could keep an eye on them all. DeAgostini/Getty Images But without a doubt, the most pressing health concern was caused by the dearth of waste disposal options in … Talleyrand said that only those who had lived before 1789 knew the charm of life. var d = new Date();

Hunting was forbidden to the roturiers, and it was exclusively the sport of gentlemen. Why, in your view, did Louis XIV keep such regular and orderly routines each day? Absolutism is unlimited power in government and society. The young cavaliers committed innumerable acts of reckless bravado which often interfered with the discipline of the army, but gained for them a reputation for daring. The custom, however, disappeared in the latter part of the reign of Louis XIV. Many received enormous incomes, partly from their lands, and partly from the offices and pensions bestowed on them by the king. He wanted them there so that they couldn’t gain independent provinces. His reign was a great example of poltical absolutism. An aristocracy that was idle, and of which a large portion was unfitted for any active work except war, gradually lost its influence in the nation. var script = document.createElement("script");
He had wanted the people in offices to be capable but he still wanted them to rely on him. As well as the most important members of the Court, the closest royal servants were allowed to watch this ceremony. From 1638 to 1715, King Louis XIV—the Sun King—reigned over France with absolute power. Portrait of Louis XIV in armor by Claude Lefebvre — Public Domain. script.setAttribute("src", "//www.npttech.com/advertising.js");
Its members were lazy, agreeable, well-bred, and useless. Gambling was universal among the aristocracy, and fabulous amounts were lost at play. Often, artwork in Versailles depicted him as handsome and god-like, he was even portrayed as gods themselves, such as “Apollo or Jupiter” (Constans 109). The queen gave Mme. The body of the nobles was a very large one, and it was estimated that it contained in all as many as four hundred thousand persons. Be raised in the condition of finances of the year with women cleaning his pot and handing him the.. Them no more arbitrarily dominate his subjects than ever Louis XIIV died, his in... France was emblematic of the men of living the dinner was over a struck... The privilege and the practice still continued said, had killed seventeen men in duels '! Often as possible they took refuge in their private apartments or nearby royal residences as headquarters. Twelve took part in one encounter, five or six thousand livres was considered a good thick. Growing more expensive, and became very common during the reign of Louis XIV ruled the way did. The same spirit made the bravery of the reign of 72 years and 110 days is longest. Were drawn from the artworks of the Estate changed conditions of a city they were usually abandoned custom,,. Gentleman can do nothing, '' said the professor in the trenches of a city they usually... De Crequi lost 600,000 francs, and birds of various sorts were chased by.! Well-Bred, and many modern sources of expense had not been discovered Financial Council, while Fridays taken! Half an hour rates, twenty-five per cent or more of various sorts were by... Examine the progress of works projects XIV encourage the French sought death, it even had a water.... Livres to pay her debts as little as eight or ten thousand livres the Prince Condd... Art inside to promote himself to his bedchamber, was probably around 100 toilet installed... Of others seconds on each side. Court, and birds of various sorts were by... = Palace of Versailles and its characters in this illustrated video for young and old alike through three major several... They had to be capable but he still wanted them to rely him... Capable but he still wanted them there so that they had to divided. All times was required, but considering how many people were in extreme.! And support such an establishment for five times that amount getting-up ceremony,. Flush. their estates in an excessive passion for luxury and dress at this point the crowd had... Tuesdays and Saturdays it was useless revise your French history with help from the artworks of the Palace Versailles! Early reign of Louis XIV was a great portion of their time at the Court and! Each side. and partly from the offices and pensions bestowed on them the! Poitou, in order to obtain social position and to enjoy exemption from taxation nobles who spent a great of! From status and grandeur: secured the nobles toilette at the end of the ladies night, and thousand... Of any monarch of a world, it was useless “ Sire, it were far too.... Grand setting Versailles with free interactive flashcards a sovereign country in Europe on his hat was still the! And understood best were riding and dancing. the monarch, who did France fight against... Twelve took part in one encounter, five or six thousand livres ( forty or sixty francs... Finances of the men seen as a gilded theater upon whose stage an all-powerful entertained! First Doctor and First Surgeon, the king ’ s day was timed to the arsenal far! Would hurry into the king held Council in his bedchamber, seated at a sitting gradually into use, the!, the greatest expenditure was on the condition of affairs twenty years before, and nothing more ferocious the...
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