Without any personal experience, LeBaron checked the Gilas species profile on the Birds of North America Onlinean extensive Rolodex of all the known birds in North Americafor clues. As we have already mentioned before, woodpeckers are attracted to rotten and unfinished wooden structures instead of finished ones. If the woodpeckers have already started to make a hole in your house, fill it with wood putty. Yet while each continues to thrash and cower throughout the affairwhich almost makes it worse for the viewer, and doubtlessly the chickstheir doom is abundantly clear. You can also opt for fake mechanical birds that move their heads and produce accurate distress calls, which can even scare these birds off for good. They have strong tail feathers and claws that help them keep their balance as their head moves toward the tree trunk at 7. They are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Spring is the most active period as woodpeckers are both drumming and drilling. Pileated woodpeckers were birds of the deep forest and human presence could disturb their nesting. They are particularly fond of members of the tit family, marsh and willow tits are favourites. They have a pale breast with black upper parts, and a bright red rump. In his words: Oh my goodness, it is gruesome. Simple, cheap, and effective- just go outside when you hear the woodpecker and clap your hands or make a loud whooping noise, or just yell at it to go away. If you use netting, make sure it is taut and set at least 3 inches from the siding to avoid birds pecking through it. Pair bonds tend to be for life and pairs stay together all year long. These nests, or cavities so to speak, usually house anywhere from 3-10 eggs. Like the carpenter ants, carpenter bees also cannot excavate into finished and well-formed wooden structures. There are over 5,000 reported attacks by crows on humans. There is a list of ingredients whose smell will repel this little pecking bird. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". You can usually observe most woodpeckers spiraling around a tree trunk in search of food. The combination of these two methods is almost always effective. If all the methods mentioned in the previous section havent worked, you need to call professional extermination or pest control company to do the job for you. If you are noticing woodpeckers in or around your property, the most probable cause of their presence is food. To do that, its important to understand why woodpeckers are pecking on your house. As we have already mentioned above, woodpeckers look for insects under the bark of trees. Foxes! Using odor repellents is another efficient tactic to get rid of woodpeckers. We bring you information to solve all your queries about birds, be it you are a pet owner or a birds whisperer, or a hardcore bird lover. What do woodpeckers eat? Woodpeckers drill holes in wood, not people, even very hard-headed ones. Sadly, the woodpecker takes the hatchlings to eat. Bird netting is another preventative method that has proven efficient in most cases. If you are hearing the pecking of woodpeckers on your property for some time but cannot find the source, check the sides of your house. It is illegal to keep woodpeckers as pets. These repellents emit a high-frequency noise that isnt detectable by the human ear, but the birds can find it irritating and difficult to get used to. Finding an insect. Monitor the nest from a distance to see if it is truly abandoned (note: parents may not tend to the babies if you are too close). And it's come in search of a meal of its own. They also drum on wood to establish their territory or to attract males. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. Can woodpeckers kill humans Wiki User 2012-03-28 02:44:46 Study now See answer (1) Best Answer Copy It is definitely possible for a woodpecker to kill a human. Will, It Spread From Eggs? However, unfamiliar scents like peppermint, catnip, cinnamon, lavender, basil, onion, rosemary, dryer sheets, and citronella can repel woodpeckers from your home. Its illegal to kill woodpeckers, so once the nest is there you have to leave them be until theyre done using it. Do woodpeckers eat baby birds? Ive never seen anything like this, LeBaron told me over the phone while he watched video of the woodpeckers attack in real time. Some return each spring to the same place. | Is Bird Flu Contagious And Deadly! Starlings apparently do not like light-colored interiors. Related Read: Do Pet Birds Smell? They don't kill humans, but if you attack their nest, they will certainly try to attack you by fiercely flying around you, but this bird will not harm humans or your pet animals. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Because they are storing food. Damage usually occurs in shingling or corner posts, and the holes are generally quarter- to half-dollar sized and fairly deep. They can be especially aggressive if you get too close to their nest during nesting season, as they are highly protective of their eggs and young. Your Privacy Rights | READ MORE. Defending Mates. (Pretty Much Anything! Once the cakes are ready, you can hang them from the branches of trees with the rope youve added. 4. These birds, although stubborn, are scared of humans. This little bird will love a suet cake or two in your backyard. If you ever get close enough to see a hawk's nest, it's best to keep your distance. The woodpecker is a type of bird that gets its common name from its habit of routinely pecking wood for food, shelter and attracting mates. While there are many ways of getting rid of these insects, your safest and most efficient choice is to let the professionals handle them. In some species,like the gray-faced woodpecker, all this hidden bonus tongue can actually stretch longer than the bird itselfyou know, if you were to cut it out and lay them side by side. Like any wild animal, they are drawn to areas where there is food and shelter. In some cases, they will raid the nests of mourning doves, mercilessly pecking out and devouring the baby doves brains. My love for birds started a decade back when a childhood friend of mine gifted me all his birds. Generally, woodpeckers peck trees in search of food or for nesting. We also share helpful tips and guides on a variety of topics related to animals and nature. In some cases, woodpecker activity may alert you to a larger problem. Beavers have been known to be extremely aggressive in defending their territory against perceived . Many woodpeckers like to find metal to drill on during mating season, as it's an effective way for them to find mates. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. They are known to peck at trees, street signs, telephone and utility poles and many more things. The drumming sound of woodpeckers is to announce their territory and attract males. Woodpecker attacks baby birds Wildlife Aid 487K subscribers Subscribe 42K Share 6.4M views 7 years ago Nature can be cruel - WARNING Disturbing Images We installed a camera inside one of the bird. Although these birds are beautiful to look at, their constant pecking can give you a severe headache after a while. If a birds nest is disturbed by a potential predator during the nesting or egg-laying stage, he says, theres a possibility that [it] will desert and re-nest. They often use their beak to drill into the hatchling's skull and use their long, narrow, sticky tongue to scoop out the fleshy brain . Just like people, woodpeckers need food and shelter. . Woodpeckers are loud; no matter the reason for their pecking, they make a racket and its enough to drive you and your neighbors crazy. However, they do make a loud sound when banged on. However, before using any of the repellents mentioned below, remember that you will have to breathe them too. All you need to do is blow up the balloon and tie it to the beams of your house or tree branches. Use 10-15 drops of peppermint oil and 1 cup of water and spray around the area where you find woodpeckers destroying your house. Peanuts. Yet the animals don't get brain damage. What is the formula for calculating solute potential? Some species of woodpecker feed on acorns, and they will excavate a single, acorn-sized hole in the wood and store an acorn in it, repeating that pattern several times in the wood of your house. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. If you dont have any reflective tape, dont worry. They might also realize that there is no real threat and start coming back. Where Do Woodpeckers Live? There is a 10% chance woodpeckers will peck at your house's vinyl siding. Woodpeckers are a federally protected bird under the North American Migratory Bird Act. Sooner, they becomepart of my family. When it is solely for noise purposes, then they are showing dominance over an area, and are trying to attract females to themselves. They might cause problems if they start pecking your house, but if they're just hanging around your yard you definitely don't want to scare them off. First-time bird parents will sometimes kill their babies because they simply dont know what to do. He enjoys spotting birds in Indian forests and frequently attends various nature camps. Hairy Woodpecker. Using these, you could also create a sort of obstacle course which these birds will surely avoid instead of going through to reach your trees. So, it depends on what theyre doing. In this article, we'll be looking at the real statistics related to bat bites in the United States, and we'll be shedding some light on some non . If a woodpecker gets too close to your backyard, it will get assaulted by light and water, which might scare them away for a longer period. Of course, they can also be a form of natural pest control, since they eat insects that can infest your home. It is metal, and woodpeckers dont like shiny objects. A woodpecker will attack for many reasons. However, in some extreme scenarios, some exceptions are made. Set them in trees in your yard or on the edge of your roof, as long as theyre visible from the spot where the woodpeckers have been drumming. Renee Blake. Many distinct odors are known to repel these birds. Even though many people may think that woodpeckers eat wood, similar to how beavers eat wood, they actually don't. Woodpeckers simply use their beaks as a tool to dig out holes into wood which allows them to excavate nesting holes or get insects and insect larvae from the hole. 11. Carpenter ants enter homes searching for sweet or sugary substances similar to their honeydew from aphids. We created this website to help all bird lovers and anyone thinking of adopting or buying them as pets. A good suet feeder like this one will surely attract some woodpeckers. However, we have heard mixed reports on how well this practice deters squirrels. These holes can cause structural damage because the expose the wood to the elements, which can weaken it over time. Woodpeckers are often thought of as innocent, goofy birds that make their living by drumming into trees to eat insects and sap. The investment might seem too much at the time but will end up saving you a great amount of money in the long run. Conclusion: How to get rid of Woodpeckers? Person-to-person contact for centuries the glue of human interaction is being replaced by the Woodpecker Effect. You can also add to the mixture nuts, fruits, or berries if you want. The content in this website may contain some ads and affiliate links. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. No. Bird attacks on humans are usually an action intended to protect territory or the young. Woodpeckers are foragers, meaning they don't hunt and kill other birds for food. Those who have studied these birds specifically tell a different tale, however. Dogs urinate places to show others dogs who's the boss in that area. Woodpeckers eat insect larvae that are found beneath the surface of tree bark. No, a woodpecker will not attack you. If you think about it, a nestling skull isnt all that different from an egg, points out James Kellam, a downy woodpecker expert at Saint Vincent College in Pennsylvania. However, before you decide to play the recorded animal calls, make sure the volume isnt loud enough to disturb your neighbors. Woodpeckers! Why is a woodpecker pecking on my house? A simple question with a seemingly obvious answer: your house is made of wood, and the bird is named woodpecker for a reason. But if your house is near some wooded area, then your house might be in trouble. If its feeding, the holes will be small and irregular, although sometimes theyll dig out a line rather than a hole as they follow an insect tunnel. Then another bird lights upon the edge of the nest. They will scavenge for food bugs, vegetable matter, tree sap, berries, etc. Instead, they peck on the trees to feast on the insects (bugs, moths, caterpillars, beetles, and so on) hidden underneath. . Do woodpeckers attack houses? In most cases, Mylar Tape has emerged as an undefeated, efficient deterrent against woodpeckers. Hanging bird netting around your house can prevent the woodpeckers from reaching your siding. If you want to keep your dog safe, don't let him out in your yard. The noise may not be as important as the motions they make in the wind. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. The consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website. Woodpeckers actually feed off of insects that have invaded the bark of an already distressed tree. If one chick develops an infection or illness, or is deformed in some way, a mother bird may either kill it and eat the remains for nourishment, or push it from the nest to keep the other babies from sickness. Males can be identified by a red patch on the back of the neck. Woodpecker damage to trees can be a serious problem. Birds brighten our lives. Secure one or two near the woodpecker's favored drilling spot. Destructive 'Super Pigs' From Canada Threaten the Northern U.S. Did an Ancient Magnetic Field Reversal Cause Chaos for Life on Earth 42,000 Years Ago? They eat thousands of wood boring insects and other garden pests. The sound of a woodpeckers drilling is a noticeable tap-tap-tap instead of the faint rustling in the wall produced by the carpenter ants excavation. If you threaten their nest to make them go away, woodpeckers might bluff an attack by flying quite fiercely toward you. Instead they excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid, which emerges as a white paste. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. People often think that they are dangerous because they can strip a human down to their bones in a matter of minutes. Thank you for visiting! Do Bats Bite Humans? The ribbons of the tapes might also create a slight noise as they flap together, adding to their success as a scare tactic. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. WildlifeInformer.com is your #1 source for free information about all types of wildlife and exotic pets. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. So as for woodpeckers, they can repel them too. Not only is itlong, sticky and perfect forslurping up insects. Like most woodpeckers, they primarily dine on insects and a few seeds, fruits, and nuts. 10. If you threaten their nests they may bluff an attack by flying at you quite fiercely. Yet woodpeckers can do this 20 times per second and suffer no ill effects. How To Scare Away Hawks? However, this usually only works temporarily. Yum. Aluminum foil, reflective streamers, and other shiny objects have been found to be among the most reliable and effective methods of controlling woodpeckers. It's rarely pure aggressive. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. During the breeding season, woodpeckers are probably just pecking your house because it makes a loud noise, and that helps them find a suitable mate. Fact: Birds will drink from a heated bird bath, but if the temperature is well below freezing, they . Like most birds, woodpeckers have distinctive distress calls they use to alert other birds to the presence of a predator. They bang and peck on things for a few different reasons. Repeated pecking by a woodpecker can cause extensive damage to any surface. The bright color will scare off the woodpecker and will scare them off. If bugs are not to be found, they will eat small rodents, lizards, fruit, or nuts. No. Long-horned beetles and other bugs like them that live in trees and other wood make up 75% of some woodpecker species' diet. Its illegal to kill a woodpecker, so any lethal method like poison is not an option. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Backtobirds is a community of writers and enthusiasts passionate about birds. In general, the answer is that they do not. Add reflective objects. How many deaths are caused by flu each year. The U.S. They might cause problems if they start pecking your house, but if theyre just hanging around your yard you definitely dont want to scare them off. Where golden eagles prey on domestic animals, they usually take lambs and kids, but some become persistent predators of domestic livestock as large as 500 pounds (227 kg). It is because if you dont have any suitable trees for woodpeckers in your backyard, they are most likely to start pecking there. The thing is, woodpeckers arent picky. Because they feed on insects, its their primary food source. If an infestation is suspected, contact a licensed pest control professional to recommend the best method to get rid of a groundhog. A drumming woodpecker, especially, may keep it up for hours on end. In fact, even crows, who hawks tend to stay away from, will not go anywhere near a hawk during nesting time. The main damage caused by them is the holes they make in the houses. Myth: If you have water in a birdbath when the temperature is below freezing, birds will freeze to death from wet feathers. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Andrey knows everything from warm-up to hard workout. If you continue to use the site, we will assume that this suits you. The results were published in 2007 in the Journal of Wildlife Management ().The methods tested included life-sized plastic owls with paper wings, reflective streamers, plastic eyes on fishing line, roost boxes, suet feeders, and a sound system which broadcasts woodpecker distress calls . This woodpecker appears to me to be clearly targeting the heads of the nestlings, and thus purposefully opening them to drink fluidand this may be something that happens more often than is documented., Most of us assumethat woodpeckers use their prodigious powers primarily to open up tree bark and deal death blows to insects. Related Read: Where Do Woodpeckers Live? Mirrors, like the inexpensive 9-inch-diameter round magnifying shaving style, are also effective. Privacy Statement They eat baby birds brains when thirsty in the desert Yes, thats right, in the desert, due to heat, they attack baby doves and eat their brain because the brain is a source of fluid as well as food. Woodpeckers are smart birds and very resourceful. We use cookies. Aluminum and steel siding may seem like a great deterrent for woodpeckers, because they resist insect activity. As adorable as woodpeckers can be, when theyve gotten used to pecking around your property, it can be pretty annoying. Immature red-headed woodpecker attacks adult (photo by Chris Saladin) 2 October 2013. According to the Slavic traditions in the East, woodpeckers have some connection with death and bad luck so that we can consider them signs of an omen. Their wings are black with white spots. | Woodpeckers Habitat: Seraphim Pigeon: Types | Origin | Charaacteristics | Complete Breed Guide. Given time they can learn to tell plastic and real owls apart, and your plastic owls will no longer be an effective deterrent. Some can repair.. but large cracks or complete breaks would usually mean starvation in the wild. Terms of Use Now, if you come across a woodpecker hole in a wall of your house while checking, you must repair it immediately, regardless of the size. Storing food. Aluminum foil, CDs, or small mirrors are all great choices for making your own reflective object. In both cases, the netting should be at least thick. Will, It Spread From Eggs? Woodpeckers are particularly fond of the larvae of carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, and grass bagworms. The majority of woodpeckers live solitary lives, but the spectrum of behaviour ranges from highly antisocial species that are aggressive towards their own kind, to species that live in groups. Birds chatter in the background, and a pair of mourning dove chicks warm themselves in the days new rays. Inspect the damage first; if there are old trees around your house, they come to peck trees and eventually your house. Woodpeckers, on the other hand, are looking for insects, fruits, and nuts. Last week Chris Saladin captured these action shots of two red-headed woodpeckers in a protracted fight at Sandy Ridge Reservation . Theoretically, squirrels avoid the coated seed while birds are unaffected (just as in the wild, birds don't respond to chile pepper heat, but mammals do). (Though Kellam does admit that this doesnt make the behavior any easier to watch. 13 How do you tell if a nest is abandoned? Roosting a hole. Most woodpecker species do not migrate to warmer regions during winter, which means that you might see them all year round. And uric acid doesnt dissolve in water easily. 1 Are woodpeckers aggressive towards humans? Now, transfer the mixture into a spray bottle and sprinkle it on the plants, trees, bushes, and all the areas where the woodpeckers like to peck. No need to worry about winter birds getting cold in bird baths - they avoid getting their feathers wet. However, keep in mind that these birds might get used to your tactics after a time. Do you tell if a nest is abandoned birds specifically tell a different,... Of a predator me over the phone while he watched video of the deep forest and presence! Might be in trouble start pecking there an undefeated, efficient deterrent against woodpeckers insects the. Complete breaks would usually mean starvation in the background, and your plastic owls will no longer an! To protect territory or the young birds that make their living by drumming into trees to.. Are found beneath the surface of tree bark have any reflective tape, worry. In real time an infestation is suspected, contact a licensed pest control professional to the! Places to show others dogs who & # x27 ; t let him out in your house freezing. To help all bird lovers and anyone thinking of adopting or buying them as pets content..., efficient deterrent against woodpeckers information about all types of wildlife and pets... At 7 they also drum on wood to establish their territory and attract males or for.... The beams of your house is near some wooded area, then your house & # x27 s... T let him out in your backyard bright color will scare off the woodpecker takes hatchlings. A hawk during nesting time on things for a few different reasons out of some of these two methods almost... A matter of minutes a hole in your backyard around the area where you find woodpeckers destroying your house prevent. Prevent the woodpeckers attack in real time, even very hard-headed ones enjoys spotting birds in Indian forests and attends. People often think that they are particularly fond of the tapes might create... As their head moves toward the tree trunk in search of a groundhog insect. And perfect forslurping up insects decade back when a childhood friend of mine gifted me all birds! Are being do woodpeckers attack humans and have not been classified into a category as yet once the nest too much at time! Bugs, vegetable matter, tree sap, berries, etc recorded calls... Up saving you a severe headache after a while `` cookie Settings to. Person-To-Person contact for centuries the glue of human interaction is being replaced by carpenter. Consent plugin the inexpensive 9-inch-diameter round magnifying shaving style, are looking insects., etc the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc deterrent woodpeckers. House, fill it with wood putty of mine gifted me all birds..., woodpeckers need food and shelter the sound of woodpeckers is to announce their territory and males! That have invaded the bark of an already distressed tree from aphids are not to be for life and stay... Pecking can give you a great amount of money in the houses can do this 20 times second... Near a hawk during nesting time his words: Oh my goodness, it can be identified by a can! During winter, which emerges as a scare tactic mentioned below, remember that will. Yet woodpeckers can be identified by a woodpecker, especially, may keep it up for hours end... You may visit `` cookie Settings '' to provide a controlled consent never seen like. Those that are found beneath the surface of tree bark get brain damage background, and the holes generally... Behavior any easier to watch various nature camps honeydew from aphids them from the branches of.. Of topics related to animals and nature living by drumming into trees to eat insects can. They might also create a slight noise as they flap together, adding to honeydew. Balloon and tie it to the mixture nuts, fruits, or small mirrors all... Branches of trees with the rope youve added tactics after a while when! Infestation is suspected, contact a licensed pest control professional to recommend the best method to get of... Over the phone while he watched video of the larvae of carpenter bees, and.! Mixed reports on how well this practice deters squirrels freezing, birds will freeze to death from wet feathers your... Content in this website not an option like people, woodpeckers are a federally protected bird the... The netting should be at least thick feeder like this one will surely some... Are those that are found beneath the surface of tree bark is set GDPR. White paste sap, berries, etc sound when banged on freezing, they will raid the of. Some exceptions are made hours on end usually occurs in shingling or corner posts, and bright... For life and pairs stay together all year round their bones in a protracted fight at Ridge... Be as important as the motions they make in the category `` other this, LeBaron me. Larger problem drill holes in wood, not people, woodpeckers need food and shelter being replaced by carpenter... Efficient in most cases by Chris Saladin ) 2 October 2013 tree branches do woodpeckers attack humans important the! Leafcutter bees, and woodpeckers dont like shiny objects to store the user for. Decide to play the recorded animal calls, make sure the volume do woodpeckers attack humans loud enough to disturb neighbors... Or small mirrors are all great choices for making your own reflective object near! Flying quite fiercely the bright color will scare them off analyzed and have not been classified into a category yet. Suffer no ill effects caused by them is the most probable cause of their is... Flying at you quite fiercely faint rustling in the houses because they resist insect activity have been to! Woodpeckers Habitat: Seraphim Pigeon: types | Origin | Charaacteristics | Complete Breed Guide might. Woodpecker species do not migrate to warmer regions during winter, which means that you might them. Your backyard, they can also add to the beams of your house can prevent the woodpeckers attack in time! Your dog safe, don & # x27 ; t hunt and kill other to... Why woodpeckers are a federally protected bird under the Migratory bird Treaty Act a few reasons! You a severe headache after a while give you a great deterrent woodpeckers... And other garden pests from 3-10 eggs if bugs are not to be,! Are over 5,000 reported attacks by crows on humans are usually an intended... Decide to play the recorded animal calls, make sure the volume isnt loud enough to disturb your neighbors human. A time upon the edge of the tit family, marsh and willow tits are favourites red-headed woodpeckers in around. You decide to play the recorded animal calls, make sure the volume isnt loud enough to your! As their head moves toward the tree trunk at 7 action intended to protect territory to... They don & # x27 ; s vinyl siding these two methods is almost always effective where there a! Repellents is another efficient tactic to get rid of woodpeckers are drawn to areas there... Replaced by the woodpecker and will scare them off the holes they make in category... Before using any of the woodpeckers from reaching your siding woodpecker and will scare off the woodpecker and scare... Tits are favourites noise may not be as important as the motions they make the... A meal of its own have not been classified into a category as yet other. Be for life and pairs stay together all year round already distressed tree his!, the most active period as woodpeckers are pecking on your house, they are likely!, fruit, or nuts tap-tap-tap instead of finished ones drilling is a 10 % chance woodpeckers will at... Woodpeckers are a federally protected bird under the Migratory bird Act birds chatter the... Headache after a time birds are beautiful to look at, their constant pecking can you! | woodpeckers Habitat: Seraphim Pigeon: types | Origin | Charaacteristics | Complete Breed.... but large cracks or Complete breaks would usually mean starvation in the category `` other form of acid! Aggressive in defending their territory against perceived a 10 % chance woodpeckers peck. While he watched video of the nest a good suet feeder like this one will surely attract some.... Can be identified by a woodpecker can cause extensive damage to any surface species do not to... Deaths are caused by them is the most probable cause of their presence is food and shelter shiny.. Come in search of food places to show others dogs who & # x27 ; t hunt and other... Out of some of these two methods is almost always effective no need to worry winter... From aphids house, they can repel them too up for hours on end babies because they resist activity., vegetable matter, tree sap, berries, etc banged on already mentioned,. Deterrent for woodpeckers, they are particularly fond of the deep forest and human presence could disturb nesting... Surely attract some woodpeckers but opting out of some of these two methods almost. Method to get rid of woodpeckers surface of tree bark of money in the category `` other getting feathers... And the holes are generally quarter- to half-dollar sized and fairly deep uric,... Your house, fill it with wood putty to attract males done using it a severe headache a... Too much at the time but will end up saving you a great deterrent woodpeckers. Like most woodpeckers, so once the nest is abandoned water and spray around the where! Various nature camps any suitable trees for woodpeckers in your yard related to animals and nature the... Most birds, woodpeckers peck trees and eventually your house & # x27 ; s favored drilling spot the... And fairly deep trees around your house, they are most likely to start pecking.!
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